GYÖRGY KOVÁCS

THE BIRTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION – A HISTORY

First edition

Ad Librum

Budapest, 2022

THE BIRTH OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION

Preface

Chapter I.

The birth of the Christian religion

1. Why has Jesus become ‘the chosen one’?

2. The most significant supernatural miracles in the Jewish religion

2.1. The most significant supernatural miracles in the First Book of Moses

2.2. The most significant miracles in the Second Book of Moses

3. The natural miracles of the New Testament

3.1. The ‘star of Bethlehem’ appearing during the birth of Jesus

3.2. The ‘darkness’ at the crucifixion of Jesus

3.3. The earthquake at the crucifixion of Jesus

4. Earthquakes in Judea

5. How it could have happened

Chapter II

The time of birth of the Christian religion

Introduction

A. THE CHRONOLOGIES USED IN THE NEW TESTAMENT ERA

1. A few important things to know concerning Jewish chronology

2. A few important things to know concerning the chronology used in the Roman Empire

2.1. A few important things to know concerning the Roman emperor’s chronology

2.2. A few important things to know about the Roman consul’s chronology

2.3. A few important things to know about the Olympian chronology

2.4. A few important things to know about the chronology from the founding of Rome

2.5. A few important things to know concerning the Julian chronology

3. A few important things to know about Christian chronology

4. A few important things to know about the Gregorian calendar

5. Interconversion between the chronology from the founding of Rome, the Olympic and the Christian chronology

B. DETERMINING THE YEAR OF JESUS’S DEATH ON THE CROSS WITH METHODS USING DIFFERENT STARTING DATA APPLIED IN EXAMINATIONS

1. Determining the year of Jesus’s death on the cross based on the time of John the Baptist’s appearance

2. Determining the year of death of Jesus on the cross based on his time of birth

2.1. Determining the year of Jesus’s birth according to Christian chronology

2.1.2.1. The assumption that the time data of the ‘first census’ described in the Gospel of Luke is AD 6 or 7.

2.1.2.2. The assumption that the time data of the ‘first census’ described in the Gospel of Luke is 2 BC or 8 BC

2.2. Determining the year of Jesus’s death on the cross based on the data of the Talmud referring to him being 33 years old

3. Determining the year of Jesus’s death on the cross based on which day of the week the crucifixion took place

3.1. Determining the day of Jesus’s death on the cross based on the day of the crucifixion being a Friday

3.2. Determining Jesus’s year of death on the cross based on the possible weekdays of the preparation day of Passover

C. DETERMINING THE YEAR OF JESUS’S DEATH ON THE CROSS WITH NEW STARTING DATA

1. Time data featured in the apocryphal writing ‘Records of Our Lord Jesus Christ Written in the Times of Pontius Pilate’

2. Checking the 25 March starting date

3. Jesus’s death on the cross on a Friday

4. Measures taken at the First Council of Nicaea

5. Reconstructing the calendar in the period lasting from the introduction of the Julian calendar to the introduction of the Gregorian calendar considering the measures of the First Council of Nicaea

6. Reconstructing the calendar for the period before the Julian calendar

7. The consequences of the calendar reconstruction with the consideration of the measures of the First Council of Nicaea on the time of Jesus’s birth

8. The consequences of the calendar reconstruction with the consideration of the measures of the First Council of Nicaea at the time of Jesus’s death on the cross

9. Identifying the order of events in the period lasting from the start of Jesus’s teaching to his death on the cross according to Christian chronology

D. THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE EVENTS OF THE AUGUSTUS AGE ACCORDING TO CHRISTIAN CHRONOLOGY

1. The identification of the more important events of the Augustus age according to Christian chronology

1.1. Examination of the astronomical data of early Imperial Rome

2. Census in the Roman Empire in the Augustus age

3. Identifying the more important events of the Augustus age according to Christian chronology

3.1. The emperor’s chronology

3.2. The identification of Emperor Augustus’s tribunician, consular and triumvirate years and the more important events of his life according to Christian chronology

3.3. The Roman imperial census taken during the time of Emperor Augustus’s rule

3.4. The identification of the regnal years of the early imperial age according to Christian chronology

4. The identification of the events of Jewish history in the Augustus age according to Christian chronology

Chapter III

The spreading of the Christian religion and its becoming a world religion

1. The formation of the Christian community in Jerusalem

2. The spreading of the Christian religion outside Jerusalem

2.1. The proselytism of the apostle Philip in Samaria

2.2. The conversion of the apostle Paul

2.3. The apostle Peter’s miracles in Lidda and Joppe

2.4. The apostle Peter baptises the Gentile Cornelius, the Roman centurion in Caesarea

3. The formation of the church in Antioch

3.1. The first persecution of Christians

4. The spreading of the Christian religion on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea and in the Roman Empire

5. Paleochristian writings

6. The Christian religion becomes state religion in the Roman Empire

7. The origins of Christian chronology

8. The Christian religion becomes a world religion

9. Christian teaching

Epilogue

If you write and can afford it,

let seven men write your poem.

One, who builds a marble village,

one, who was born in his sleep,

one, who charts the sky and knows it,

one, whom words call by his name,

one, who perfected his soul,

one, who dissects living rats.

Two are brave and four are wise;

You yourself must be the seventh.

(Attila József: ‘The Seventh’, Fourth Stanza)

PREFACE

This book interprets the context and chronology of the birth of Christianity from a historicity point of view.

Everyone has the right to interpret these events from a standpoint of faith, of course; therefore, I have done my best to avoid any phrasing that might offend readers with such an approach.

If I have failed to do so completely, I apologise.

CHAPTER I.

THE BIRTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION

1. WHY HAS JESUS BECOME ‘THE CHOSEN ONE’?

Those viewing the evolution of Christianity from a natural–scientific perspective have long been concerned with the events leading to the birth of Christianity.

Christian religion comes from a religious movement that had formed alongside the Jewish religion but has not withered away like similar religious movements but, breaking away from the Jewish religion, has become a religion of its own. This, without a doubt, was because of Jesus, who had become God’s chosen one in the eyes of believers.

For scholars investigating the historicity of Jesus, it is not so self-explanatory how he has become and what has made him the chosen one.

In those times, before and even after Jesus, people claiming to be the Messiah showed up regularly, but it was not them who have become Christ in the eyes of the believers but Jesus.

According to Josephus Flavius, numerous prophets came forth who then lured the people out into the wilderness with the promise that they would meet the Messiah there. A messiah named Theudas appeared under procurator Cuspius Fadus (AD 44-46) and attracted a great number of believers. He set out for the river Jordan with his followers and promised them he would divide the water with a single word. With this he wanted to prove the divine nature of his mission. Following this he would have gone on a campaign against the Romans with his followers. Fadus sent a cavalry against them which slaughtered a part of Theudas’ followers and captured the remainder. The prophet himself also got captured and later beheaded. His severed head was sent to Jerusalem as a warning, an object lesson.

Under the procuratorship of Antonius Felix (AD 52-60) a Jew from Egypt claimed to be a prophet (the Messiah). He surrounded himself with thousands of believers whom he lured up to the Mount of Olives from where he wanted to violently enter Jerusalem in order to defeat the Roman garrison and to seize power. But Felix derailed these plans: he had some of the nameless messiah’s followers killed or incarcerated and drove away others. The messiah himself slipped through his fingers and escaped.

Not much later under procurator Portius Festus (AD 60-62) another messiah stepped forward who lured the people out into the wilderness with the promise of happiness. But Festus had both the messiah and his followers murdered.

We might conclude that in the first part of the first century AD the people of Palestine lived in an exalted atmosphere of awaiting the Messiah. (Gusztáv Gecse: Biblical Stories, pp. 262–263)

So the fact that someone proclaimed himself Messiah, led his followers into the desert, rebelled against power and died a martyr’s death was not enough in itself to be considered ‘the Son of God’. Something more was needed.

From his contemporary Messiah candidates, even John the Baptist should be considered a more viable candidate than Jesus to become ‘the chosen one’ since we get to know him in the Gospels as a better known, more influential and more significant religious leader than Jesus. Still, it was Jesus who became the ‘Son of God’ in the eyes of the people, not John the Baptist.

Annas and Caiaphas being the high priests, the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias in the wilderness.

And he came into all the country about Jordan, preaching the baptism of repentance for the remission of sins;

As it is written in the book of the words of Esaias the prophet, saying, The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.

Every valley shall be filled, and every mountain and hill shall be brought low; and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough ways shall be made smooth;

And all flesh shall see the salvation of God. (Luke 3:2–6)

And as the people were in expectation, and all men mused in their hearts of John, whether he were the Christ, or not… .’ (Luke 3:15)

So neither being more known, having greater influence nor assuming a more significant religious position was enough to be ‘the chosen one’; there had to be something else.

There had to be something that made Jesus Christ opposed to others in the eyes of believers.

But what could it have been? Why has he become ‘the chosen one’? Why is he considered ‘the Son of God’? We can answer this question if we get to know how people back then thought about this. We can find this in the New Testament in the text Acts of the Apostles in the part where the high priest has Peter and the other apostles arrested, and they have to face accusations before the high council. Then Gamaliel, a widely respected member of the Jewish high council, defends them with the following words:

Then stood there up one in the council, a Pharisee, named Gamaliel, a doctor of the law, had in reputation among all the people, and commanded to put the apostles forth a little space;

And said unto them, Ye men of Israel, take heed to yourselves what ye intend to do as touching these men.

For before these days rose up Theudas, boasting himself to be somebody; to whom a number of men, about four hundred, joined themselves: who was slain; and all, as many as obeyed him, were scattered, and brought to nought.

After this man rose up Judas of Galilee in the days of the taxing, and drew away much people after him: he also perished; and all, even as many as obeyed him, were dispersed.

And now I say unto you, Refrain from these men, and let them alone: for if this counsel or this work be of men, it will come to nought:

But if it be of God, ye cannot overthrow it; lest haply ye be found even to fight against God. (Acts 5:34–39)

The description of the same thought can be read in the apocryphal writing ‘Records of Our Lord Jesus Christ Written in the Times of Pontius Pilate’.

This writing attributes this thought to Nicodemus, another member of the Jewish high council, who wanted to defend Jesus before the high council.

A Jewish man named Nicodemus stood before the governor and said: I ask you, merciful governor, allow me to have a few words with you. Pilate answered: Speak! Nicodemus began: I said the following to the elders, the priests, the Levites and the whole Jewish crowd in the synagogue: What do you want to do with this man? He performs many signs and miracles, the likes of which nobody has ever performed and never will. Set him free and do not plot anything evil against him. If the miraculous signs performed by him are from God, they shall remain, if they are from man, they shall perish. Moses by God’s will had also performed miracles in Egypt to honour God before the king of Egypt, the pharaoh. But there were the servants of the pharaoh, Jannes and Jambres, and they themselves also performed numerous miracles like Moses and the Egyptians almost considered them Gods. Jannes and Jambres. But since the miraculous signs performed by them had not been from God, they perished and with them those who believed in them. Therefore, set this man free because he does not deserve death. (Records of Our Lord Jesus Christ Written in the Times of Pontius Pilate, Chapter 5)

So for Jesus to become the chosen one, there needed to be some kind of divine confirmation because in those times, solely based on human attributes and acts, no one could become the ‘Son of God’ in the eyes of the people.

Neither Theudas, Judas of Galilee nor John the Baptist could become the chosen one because they did not get any confirmation considered divine by the believers. And in those times, the occurrence of some sort of supposedly supernatural happening, divine intervention counted as divine confirmation.

This supernatural event considered divine intervention had to be a supernatural miracle that caused people to recognise Jesus as ‘the Son of God’.

But what could have been the ‘supernatural miracle’ that made Jesus ‘the chosen one’ or Christ?

2. THE MOST SIGNIFICANT SUPERNATURAL MIRACLES IN THE JEWISH RELIGION

Christian religion developed from a religious movement within the Jewish religion. For this reason, the two religions share numerous characteristics. At first, members of the Christian community had been Jews who converted to Christianity; it was only later that non-Jewish people were allowed to be baptised. Christians themselves also consider the Old Testament, the first half of the Bible, sacred.

When looking for what was considered a divine intervention at the time of the birth of Christianity, it is worth looking at what was considered the same at the birth of Jewish religion since these had to be similar because of the shared world of faith.

We can observe the development of the Jewish religion in the Bible in the first and second book of Moses where we can see that the divine confirmation of a chosen one via a supernatural miracle is of special importance.

With most miracles, God – with the cooperation of the chosen person – punishes those who have sinned against his people, or the fraction of those who do not practice their faith appropriately, with a supernatural plague and rewards his people, or the fraction of those who practice their faith appropriately, by exempting them from the effects of such a plague.

If we examine the most significant supernatural miracles accompanying the development of the Jewish religion among the events described in the Old Testament, we can get to know the phenomena that were suitable for people of the time to be considered divine intervention.

2.1. THE MOST SIGNIFICANT SUPERNATURAL MIRACLES IN THE FIRST BOOK OF MOSES

The events ranging from the creation of the world and the first humans, Adam and Eve, to the death of Josef are described in the First Book of Moses.

When highlighting the more significant miracles described here, we can find accounts of three events – considered supernatural back then – where God intervenes into the lives of people through a miracle.

One of the significant miracles can be found in the description of the ‘flood’ where God shows Noah’s role as the chosen one with this supernatural miracle possibly caused by a tidal wave.

And the flood was forty days upon the earth; and the waters increased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above the earth.

And the waters prevailed, and were increased greatly upon the earth; and the ark went upon the face of the waters.

And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and all the high hills, that were under the whole heaven, were covered.

Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were covered.

And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of beast, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, and every man:

All in whose nostrils was the breath of life, of all that was in the dry land, died.

And every living substance was destroyed which was upon the face of the ground, both man, and cattle, and the creeping things, and the fowl of the heaven; and they were destroyed from the earth: and Noah only remained alive, and they that were with him in the ark.

And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days. (Genesis 7:17–24)

We can find the second significant miracle in the description of ‘the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah’ where God highlights Lot’s role as the chosen one with the following supernatural miracle, which might have been caused by a volcanic eruption.

Then the LORD rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the LORD out of heaven;

And he overthrew those cities, and all the plain, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and that which grew upon the ground. (Genesis 19:24–25)

The third miracle of such significance can be found in the description of the events of the ‘seven years of plenty and seven years of famine’ where God shows Joseph’s role as the chosen one with a supernatural miracle, possibly caused by climate change.

And in the seven plenteous years the earth brought forth by handfuls.

And he gathered up all the food of the seven years, which were in the land of Egypt, and laid up the food in the cities: the food of the field, which was round about every city, laid he up in the same.

And Joseph gathered corn as the sand of the sea, very much, until he left numbering; for it was without number. (Genesis 41:47–49)

And the seven years of plenteousness, that was in the land of Egypt, were ended.

And the seven years of dearth began to come, according as Joseph had said: and the dearth was in all lands; but in all the land of Egypt there was bread.

And when all the land of Egypt was famished, the people cried to Pharaoh for bread: and Pharaoh said unto all the Egyptians, Go unto Joseph; what he saith to you, do.

And the famine was over all the face of the earth: and Joseph opened all the storehouses, and sold unto the Egyptians; and the famine waxed sore in the land of Egypt.

And all countries came into Egypt to Joseph for to buy corn; because that the famine was so sore in all lands. (Genesis 41:53–57)

2.2. THE MOST SIGNIFICANT MIRACLES IN THE SECOND BOOK OF MOSES

The events of the exodus from Egypt are told in the Second Book of Moses, where supernatural miracles follow one another in close succession. The most prominent of these is the description of the miracles of the ‘10 plagues’ in which God points out Moses and Aaron as the chosen ones.

The first plague, ‘waters become blood’: ‘And Moses and Aaron did so, as the LORD commanded; and he lifted up the rod, and smote the waters that were in the river, in the sight of Pharaoh, and in the sight of his servants; and all the waters that were in the river were turned to blood.’ (Exodus 7:20)

The second plague, ‘frogs’: ‘And Aaron stretched out his hand over the waters of Egypt; and the frogs came up, and covered the land of Egypt.’ (Exodus 8:6)

The third plague, ‘lice’: ‘And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man, and in beast; all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt.’ (Exodus 8:17)

The fourth plague, ‘flies’: ‘And the LORD did so; and there came a grievous swarm of flies into the house of Pharaoh, and into his servants’ houses, and into all the land of Egypt: the land was corrupted by reason of the swarm of flies.’ (Exodus 8:24)

The fifth plague, ‘pestilence of livestock’: ‘And the LORD did that thing on the morrow, and all the cattle of Egypt died: but of the cattle of the children of Israel died not one.’ (Exodus 9:6)

The sixth plague, ‘boils’: ‘And it shall become small dust in all the land of Egypt, and shall be a boil breaking forth with blains upon man, and upon beast, throughout all the land of Egypt.’ (Exodus 9:9)

The seventh plague, ‘hail’: ‘And the hail smote throughout all the land of Egypt all that was in the field, both man and beast; and the hail smote every herb of the field, and brake every tree of the field.’ (Exodus 9:25)

The eighth plague, ‘locusts’: ‘And the locust went up over all the land of Egypt, and rested in all the coasts of Egypt: very grievous were they; before them there were no such locusts as they, neither after them shall be such.’ (Exodus 10:14)

The ninth plague, ‘darkness’: ‘And Moses stretched forth his hand toward heaven; and there was a thick darkness in all the land of Egypt three days.’ (Exodus 10:22)

The tenth plague, ‘death of firstborn’: ‘And it came to pass, that at midnight the LORD smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne unto the firstborn of the captive that was in the dungeon; and all the firstborn of cattle.’ (Exodus 12:29)

Only after the miracles of the ‘10 plagues’ could the enslaved Jews become free and depart from Egypt aided by what had to be the most spectacular miracle of them all, the parting of the Red Sea.

And Moses stretched out his hand over the sea; and the LORD caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all that night, and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided.

And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground: and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left.

And the Egyptians pursued, and went in after them to the midst of the sea, even all Pharaoh’s horses, his chariots, and his horsemen.

And it came to pass, that in the morning watch the LORD looked unto the host of the Egyptians through the pillar of fire and of the cloud, and troubled the host of the Egyptians,

And took off their chariot wheels, that they drave them heavily: so that the Egyptians said, Let us flee from the face of Israel; for the LORD fighteth for them against the Egyptians.

And the LORD said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the sea, that the waters may come again upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots, and upon their horsemen.

And Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, and the sea returned to his strength when the morning appeared; and the Egyptians fled against it; and the LORD overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea.

And the waters returned, and covered the chariots, and the horsemen, and all the host of Pharaoh that came into the sea after them; there remained not so much as one of them.

But the children of Israel walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea; and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left.

Thus the LORD saved Israel that day out of the hand of the Egyptians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea shore. (Exodus 14:21–30)

The series of miracles continues after the exodus from Egypt with ‘The bitter waters sweetened’ (Exodus 15:22–27), ‘Manna and quails’ (Exodus 16) and ‘Water from the rock’ (Exodus 17:1–7).

We may conclude that almost all of the most significant miracles accompanying the development of Jewish religion have been caused by major, extraordinary natural phenomena. So according to the faith of Jewish believers, only an extraordinary natural phenomenon can be classified as a supernatural miracle, and only in this manner could someone become God’s chosen one.

Besides this, it can be observed that this extraordinary natural phenomenon had to happen in the close proximity of the chosen individual, before a crowd of believers, thus verifying the connection between the chosen one and God.

Based on the above, the supernatural miracle making Jesus the chosen one had to have been an extraordinary natural phenomenon, one that happened in the immediate surroundings of Jesus before the eyes of a crowd of believers.

The natural miracles portrayed in the First and Second Book of Moses can be grouped as follows:

1. Miracles caused by biological phenomena such as diseases and pests.

2. Miracles caused by geological phenomena such as a tidal waves, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

3. Miracles caused by weather or climate such as ‘the seven years of famine’ and hail.

4. Miracles caused by astronomical phenomena such as the darkening of the sun.

The miracle making Jesus the chosen one must have come from one of these categories.

3. THE NATURAL MIRACLES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT

The majority of the miracles described in the New Testament – more than 30 – consist of healings performed by Jesus.

But healing essentially counts as an ancient human activity where divine intervention does not manifest directly as in the case of a natural phenomenon.

These extraordinary acts of healing brought Jesus great popularity, but we cannot view these as miracles that in themselves would have made Jesus ‘the chosen one’ since, in all probability, there were others who had special abilities similar to his and who practiced healing.

Neither can we view the act of making certain objects disappear or manifest (catching fish, multiplying bread, turning water into wine, etc.) as miracles making him the chosen one since even back then, public opinion attributed such events to human activity.

If, according to the above considerations, we narrow down the list of miracles depicted in the Gospels that might have made Jesus the chosen one, we obtain the following:

- The appearance of the star of Bethlehem during the birth of Jesus (Matthew 2:1–11)

- Jesus calms the storm (Matthew 8:23–27, Mark 4:35–41, Luke 8:22–25)

- Jesus walks on water (Matthew 14:22–23, Mark 6:45–52, John 6:15–21)

- The transfiguration of Jesus (Matthew 17:1–13, Mark 9:2–13, Luke 9:28–36)

- Jesus curses the fig tree (Matthew 21:18–22, Mark 11:12–14 and 11:20–25)

- The darkness during the crucifixion of Jesus (Matthew 27:51, Mark 15:33–39, Luke 23:44–47

- The earthquake during the crucifixion of Jesus (Matthew 27:51, Mark 15:33–39, Luke 23:44–47

- The resurrection of Jesus (Matthew 28:1–7, Mark 16:1–8, Luke 24:1–12, John 20:1–9)

- The appearance of Jesus before Marie Magdalene and the disciples after his resurrection (Matthew 28:8–10 and 17–20; Mark 16:9–18; Luke 24:10, 15–32 and 36–50, John 20:11 and 21)

- The ascension of Jesus (Mark 16:19, Luke 24:50–53)

If we go by the statements of the previous point and consider only the miracles caused by natural phenomena suitable to make Jesus the chosen one, we can further narrow down the above list to four:

- The appearance of the star of Bethlehem during the birth of Jesus (Matthew 2:1–11)

- Jesus calms the storm (Matthew 8:23–27, Mark 4:35–41, Luke 8:22–25)

- The darkness during the crucifixion of Jesus (Matthew 27:51, Mark 15:33–39, Luke 23:44–47)

- The earthquake during the crucifixion of Jesus (Matthew 27:51, Mark 15:33–39, Luke 23:44–47)

If we also insist on the condition of the natural miracle occurring before a great number of believers, we may also exclude the miracle of calming the storm and even further narrow down the miracles making Jesus the chosen one to the following:

- The appearance of the star of Bethlehem during the birth of Jesus (Matthew 2:1–11)

- The darkness during the crucifixion of Jesus (Matthew 27:51, Mark 15:33–39, Luke 23:44–47)

- The earthquake during the crucifixion of Jesus (Matthew 27:51, Mark 15:33–39, Luke 23:44–47)

These three natural phenomena were considered supernatural miracles in those times without a doubt. And if we are looking for the miracle that made Jesus the chosen one, it must be among these three.

3.1. THE ‘STAR OF BETHLEHEM’ APPEARING DURING THE BIRTH OF JESUS

When talking about rulers of antiquity, we almost always find a confirmation of divine origin. We can read about the celestial sign of Jesus’s divine origin, the ‘star of Bethlehem’, in the Gospel of Matthew.

If during the birth of Jesus some kind of rare astronomical phenomenon occurred, it could have seemed like a miracle to the people living there; therefore, this phenomenon might have been suitable to make Jesus the chosen one.

To tell whether this was the decisive natural miracle, we have to examine what has been written about it.

Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem,

Saying, Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him.

When Herod the king had heard these things, he was troubled, and all Jerusalem with him.

And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together, he demanded of them where Christ should be born.

And they said unto him, In Bethlehem of Judaea: for thus it is written by the prophet,

And thou Bethlehem, in the land of Juda, art not the least among the princes of Juda: for out of thee shall come a Governor, that shall rule my people Israel.

Then Herod, when he had privily called the wise men, enquired of them diligently what time the star appeared.

And he sent them to Bethlehem, and said, Go and search diligently for the young child; and when ye have found him, bring me word again, that I may come and worship him also.

When they had heard the king, they departed; and, lo, the star, which they saw in the east, went before them, till it came and stood over where the young child was.

When they saw the star, they rejoiced with exceeding great joy.

And when they were come into the house, they saw the young child with Mary his mother, and fell down, and worshipped him: and when they had opened their treasures, they presented unto him gifts; gold, and frankincense and myrrh. (Matthew 2:1–11)

Several theories have been developed to give a natural–scientific explanation of this phenomenon, for example, the passing by of a meteor, the alignment of planets, a supernova eruption, etc.

But it is much more important to examine whether the people living there would have considered such a phenomenon a supernatural miracle.

According to the text, the three wise men observed the phenomenon in the East for the first time, and Herod and the people of Jerusalem have learnt about it from them.

If Herod and the people of Jerusalem received news of the phenomenon from the wise men coming from a land far away, that means they had not seen it before the arrival of the wise men.

This seems to be confirmed when Herod later asks the wise men about the time of the appearance of the star and after Herod gets to know the birthplace of the Messiah from the high priests and scribes and, based on the prophecy, sends the wise men to Bethlehem.

The fact that Herod had to send the wise men to Bethlehem based on the prophecy of the high priests and scribes means that neither Herod, the high priests and scribes, the wise men nor the inhabitants of Jerusalem had seen the phenomenon from Jerusalem.

Having been given directions, the wise men of the East set off and are led to the place of the child’s birth by the reappearing star.

If this had been an unusual, spectacular and rare natural phenomenon, it should have raised more awareness in Jerusalem as well, since a phenomenon occurring close to the zenith in Bethlehem only five kilometres away should have been visible close to the zenith in Jerusalem as well.

But since the reappearance of the astronomical phenomenon has not had any extraordinary effect on the people – if any such thing had happened, the Gospel of Matthew would have reported it – therefore, we cannot consider this phenomenon a significant, conspicuous astronomical event.

We may conclude that the case of the ‘star of Bethlehem’ does not meet a condition of being named a supernatural miracle, namely that the significant, extraordinary occurrence has to happen before believers in the surroundings of the chosen one.

Some kind of rare astronomical phenomenon must have played out in those days which could be seen in the ‘orient’ and later in Bethlehem and thus in Jerusalem as well. But this phenomenon – based on the Gospel of Matthew – was not considered a significant, extraordinary natural occurrence and for this reason could not have been the natural miracle that made Jesus the chosen one.

3.2. THE ‘DARKNESS’ AT THE CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS

Jesus was crucified on the day of preparation before the Jewish ‘feast of unleavened bread’.

The ‘darkness’ during Jesus’s death on the cross is described in the Gospel of Luke:

And it was about the sixth hour, and there was a darkness over all the earth until the ninth hour.

And the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple was rent in the midst. (Luke 23:44–45)

Part of the analyses finds this ‘darkness’ to be an apocalyptic element which is probably not based on a real-life event.

The portions of the gospel describing the death of Jesus present their message and interpret events by using the symbolic elements of apocalyptic literature describing the end of the world. Anyone who would look for credible statements behind all the data of these descriptions instead of religious teachings, theological interpretations, would judge amiss.

When Jesus was crucified around the sixth hour (noon), darkness descended upon the whole world. (Darkness in apocalyptic writings is the sign of the end of the world and God’s great judgement.) This darkness lasted until the ninth hour (3 p.m.) when Jesus died. (So Jesus’ death, defeating sin, saved the world from judgement.) (Gusztáv Gecse: Biblical Stories)

The other part of the analyses considers this phenomena a real-life event at the death of Jesus on the cross and explains it with a solar eclipse or some atmospheric phenomenon (a cloudy sky, a sandstorm).

We shall take a look at these possibilities now.

3.2.1. THE DARKNESS AS A RESULT OF A SOLAR ECLIPSE

If there was darkness at Jesus’s death on the cross, a solar eclipse seems to be the most evident explanation for it since this phenomenon is really suitable to be seen as caused by a divine miracle.

A solar eclipse is not a natural disaster, but the sun being covered by the moon would definitely have counted as a supernatural intervention in that day in the eyes of the people living there.

Moreover, according to astronomers, a solar eclipse did indeed occur in that area around that time. It could be observed in AD 29 on 24 November in the Jerusalem area.

This could not have caused complete darkness in Jerusalem because from here it did not appear to be a total eclipse, but around a 90% partial eclipse could have conspicuously ‘darkened’ the sun.

Those of Jewish religion celebrate the feast of ‘unleavened bread’ – also known as the Passover or Matzah – close to the vernal equinox. There is a difference of about four months between the solar eclipse of 24 November in AD 29 and the festival closest to it around the end of March in AD 30.

Several experts think that the most likely date of Jesus’s death on the cross is 7 April AD 30, and they explain the more than four-month time difference by saying that during the writing of the Gospels, the event of the solar eclipse got ‘mingled up’ with the happenings of Jesus’s death on the cross.

Jesus likely died the day before his 30th Easter, on the 7th of April AD 30. But a few months before that on the 24th of November AD 29 people experienced the darkness of a 90% solar eclipse in Jerusalem. It could very well be that the memory of this got mixed with the death of Jesus in the minds of the early Christians, so the gospels also mentioning the accompanying circumstances of the death on the cross show signs of bringing together events that had happened at different times. (Aurél Ponori Thewrewk: Solar Eclipses and History)

This ‘mixing up’ of two events that happened several months apart into events happening simultaneously is hard to imagine.

But looking at it this way, it does carry an interesting possibility that because of the inaccuracies of chronology applied in that era, the aforementioned difference of several months theoretically could have become only a few weeks.

This is because the date that we think of as the date of the solar eclipse or of Jesus’s death is not necessarily identical with the date people back then thought it was.

The cause of this difference might be that, lacking a significant knowledge of astronomy and accurate astronomical observational and time-measuring devices, people could not accurately determine the length of a year. In those times, the approximate determination of a year’s length was made possible by the observation of the changes in the brightness of the moon. But the length of a year cannot be accurately determined by this because the length of the lunar year, counting with an approximate average of twenty-nine and a half days, is 354.36 days (rounded up to 354–355), which is around 11 days shorter than the 365.24 days of the tropical year. The difference in three years adds up to a month. They tried to make up for this difference by inserting a leap month. But besides the insertion of the oftentimes haphazardly determined and not really working leap month, it could be that a difference of several months added up between their keeping track of time and actual chronology.

This ‘dateshift’, hard to imagine by today’s standards, happened in the Roman Empire under the rule of Julius Caesar when a total of 90 days’ difference between the official and astronomical chronology added up.

Because of this, Julius Caesar reformed the calendar based on the calculations of Egyptian astronomer Sosigenes.

In the times of Julius Caesar there was a difference of 90 days between the calendar and the solar year. In 46 BC to correct the 90 day difference Julius Caesar made the upcoming year a 445-day one … (Endre Dalos: Calendar and Chronology)

Therefore Caesar, to harmonize the official and tropical year, ordered that in the year AUC 708 (46 BC) 23 days should be added after the 23rd of Februarius and he ordered further 67 days to be added between November and December which resulted in the year having 445 days. (Gyula Schalk: Times-Ages-Calendars)

The occurrence of such a ‘dateshift’ of several months in those times provided in theory the possibility of events happening months apart according to the astronomical calendar to get extremely close to each other in keeping with the chronology of the time.

Jewish chronology, similarly to Roman chronology before Julius Caesar’s calendar reform, determined the length of a year based on the so-called lunisolar method of chronology. It tried to solve the problem of the approximately 11-day difference between the tropical year and the 12-month year consisting of 29- and 30-day months determined based on the changes in moonlight by empirically introducing a 30-day leap month.

On the evening of the 29th day of the month in Jerusalem two people had to report to the priests and swear that they had seen the crescent of the new moon. Only after this would they announce the new month by blowing the shofars and if they did not manage to sight the crescent of the new moon (e.g. in cloudy weather), they would start a new month anyway the following evening. The method of inserting the leap month worked the following way. On the first day of the last month of the year (Adar 1.) they went into the fields and if the barley had not sprouted yet, they added the leap month Vedar after Adar. The reason for this was that on the 16th of Nisan the offering of the first tender sheaf had to be made. (István Hahn: Calendar Systems and Chronology)

‘The Talmud gives a circumscription of rabbis in Jerusalem, according to which ‘because the spring sowing is very tender, the Pesach lambs to be slaughtered as a sacrifice are not well-grown and the sacrificial pigeons are also tiny’ – before the spring new moon another month needs to be inserted.’ (István Hahn: Calendar Systems and Chronology)

A drawback to this method is that if the weather spurred the growth of barley, then with the chronology determined by this method, the insertion of the leap month could have not happened even if it had been astronomically accounted for.

This could have happened the other way around as well. If the weather did not help the sprouting of the barley, they could insert a leap month even if there was no astronomical reason to do so. But looking at a period of several decades, a difference of months could have accumulated if they inserted a leap month every three years because the leap month of 30 days inserted in this manner still lacks 2–3 days to achieve the necessary compensation.

If we assume that at the time of Jesus’s death a difference of several months could have added up between the official and the astronomical chronology, we cannot exclude the possibility that the difference in time between the death of Jesus on the cross and the event of a partial solar eclipse could have diminished to a few weeks.

The question follows that if the dateshift can be as much as approximately four months because of the inaccuracies of chronology back in the day, why could we not blame the remaining few weeks on the same thing and just assume that the two events happened at the same time?

However, we have to exclude the possibility of the two events happening at the same time because as inaccurate as the calculation of the year based on the changes in moonlight might appear when determining the length of the year, the more precise it is in the aspect that on the 14th day following the beginning of the month, there had to be a full moon (the definitions of the new moon and the full moon differ in present-day astronomy from how they calculated back then, but this difference does not change anything in this case).

But at full moon – as the Roman historian Africanus pointed out at the end of the 1st century AD – there could not have been a solar eclipse because it can only happen at new moon when the moon is between the sun and the earth.

At full moon, when the moon is located on the opposite side of the earth as the sun, a solar eclipse cannot occur; it can only happen about two weeks earlier or later.

Jesus, as confirmed by other sources, was crucified on the day of preparation for the feast of unleavened bread, the 14th day of Nisan, which had to be in the full-moon phase when a solar eclipse could not have happened.

If there was a darkening at the death of Jesus on the cross, it could not have been a solar eclipse (if we were to accept the possibility of a solar eclipse, we would doubt that Jesus was crucified on the 14th day of Nisan).

And in case a solar eclipse that happened at a different time made it into the Gospels (which is highly unlikely), it cannot be the natural miracle that made Jesus the chosen one and the one that we are looking for.

3.2.2. THE POSSIBILITY OF DARKENING AS A RESULT OF AN ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENON

Other researchers explain the darkening with a cloudy sky or as an aftermath of a sandstorm. The effect of these darkenings caused by atmospheric phenomena on people – since these were relatively frequent and easy-to-explain events – is not enough to be considered supernatural miracles. This is also confirmed by the fact that during the approximately three hours of its duration, the darkening – according to the Gospels – did not evoke any special reactions from the eyewitnesses.

The darkening was most probably due to an atmospheric phenomenon (a cloudy sky, a far-off sandstorm and a cloud of volcanic ash cannot be excluded as a possibility either) at the death of Jesus on the cross, but we cannot consider this phenomenon to be the natural miracle that made Jesus the chosen one.

3.3. THE EARTHQUAKE AT THE CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS

The phenomenon of the earthquake at the death of Jesus on the cross is described in the Gospel of Matthew as follows:

Jesus, when he had cried again with a loud voice, yielded up the ghost.

And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom; and the earth did quake, and the rocks rent; (Matthew 27:50–51)

Now when the centurion, and they that were with him, watching Jesus, saw the earthquake, and those things that were done, they feared greatly, saying, Truly this was the Son of God. (Matthew 27:54)

The phenomenon of the earthquake, along with the darkening also described here, is considered to be an apocalyptic element by some of the researchers examining the historicity of Jesus. They claim it should only be interpreted in a religious way, and there is no need to look for real-life events behind them.

And when Jesus had cried with a loud voice, he said, ‘Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit!’ (A loud cry in apocalyptic literature is an expression of victory, here it emphasizes that Jesus has been victorious over sin.) And having said thus, he gave up the ghost.

And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom; and the earth did quake, and the rocks rent; And the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints which slept arose. (All of these are apocalyptic features which mean that the temple cult and with it the preceding era of being burdened by sin has come to an end.) (Gusztáv Gecse: Biblical Stories)

The other part of research, which finds it possible that these events could have occurred at the death of Jesus on the cross, usually highlights the phenomenon of darkening, identifying it as a solar eclipse while basically disregarding the earthquake, so the phenomenon of the earthquake is pushed into the background, despite it being a much more intimidating phenomenon than the solar eclipse.

The phenomenon of darkening was not considered a plague but rather an event evoking feelings of admiration and superstitious fear. An earthquake, on the other hand, meant a direct threat to the physical well-being of those experiencing it, and the damage done by it proves the existence of those mighty powers that were surely considered supernatural back then.

Therefore, we have to consider the phenomenon of the earthquake to be much more suitable to be seen as a supernatural miracle by the people.

If there was an earthquake during the death of Jesus on the cross, it had to trigger a realisation of overwhelming power, one which verified to them beyond doubt that Jesus is ‘the Son of God’.

We can find no other event connected to Jesus described in the Gospels that might have had such an effect as this natural miracle. And there had to have been some sort of extraordinary natural event in the surroundings of Jesus because his martyrdom in itself would not have resulted in the birth of a new religion.

The earthquake at the death of Jesus on the cross is mentioned in some way in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke (the splitting in two of the ‘temple veil’ had to be a consequence of the earthquake), and there is no reason to exclude the possibility of this happening; therefore, we have to look at the described earthquake as a most likely real-life event.

From this, since we have already excluded the ‘star of Bethlehem’ and the ‘darkening’ from the list of three natural phenomena that might have made Jesus ‘the chosen one’, we are left with the earthquake that most probably happened during the death of Jesus on the cross. Therefore, we may state that the natural miracle making Jesus ‘the chosen one’ had to be this earthquake.

This earthquake triggered a mass conversion of believers, and thus, this natural phenomenon resulted in the birth of a new religion, Christianity.

4. EARTHQUAKES IN JUDEA

Earthquakes are not a rare occurrence in Judea because this area is located along the fault system on the border of the African and Arabian tectonic plates, where from time to time both smaller and bigger earthquakes happen.

The most famous is probably the one described in the Old Testament, in the Book of Joshua, which might have caused the coming down of the walls of Jericho.

Now Jericho was straitly shut up because of the children of Israel: none went out, and none came in.

And the LORD said unto Joshua, See, I have given into thine hand Jericho, and the king thereof, and the mighty men of valour.

And ye shall compass the city, all ye men of war, and go round about the city once. Thus shalt thou do six days.

And seven priests shall bear before the ark seven trumpets of rams’ horns: and the seventh day ye shall compass the city seven times, and the priests shall blow with the trumpets.

And it shall come to pass, that when they make a long blast with the ram’s horn, and when ye hear the sound of the trumpet, all the people shall shout with a great shout; and the wall of the city shall fall down flat, and the people shall ascend up every man straight before him. (Joshua 6:1–5)

And it came to pass on the seventh day, that they rose early about the dawning of the day, and compassed the city after the same manner seven times: only on that day they compassed the city seven times.

And it came to pass at the seventh time, when the priests blew with the trumpets, Joshua said unto the people, Shout; for the LORD hath given you the city.

And the city shall be accursed, even it, and all that are therein, to the LORD: only Rahab the harlot shall live, she and all that are with her in the house, because she hid the messengers that we sent.

And ye, in any wise keep yourselves from the accursed thing, lest ye make yourselves accursed, when ye take of the accursed thing, and make the camp of Israel a curse, and trouble it.

But all the silver, and gold, and vessels of brass and iron, are consecrated unto the LORD: they shall come into the treasury of the LORD.

So the people shouted when the priests blew with the trumpets: and it came to pass, when the people heard the sound of the trumpet, and the people shouted with a great shout, that the wall fell down flat, so that the people went up into the city, every man straight before him, and they took the city.

And they utterly destroyed all that was in the city, both man and woman, young and old, and ox, and sheep, and ass, with the edge of the sword. (Joshua 6:15–21)

Also in the Old Testament we can find a prophecy in which an earthquake in Jerusalem is referenced.

And his feet shall stand in that day upon the mount of Olives, which is before Jerusalem on the east, and the mount of Olives shall cleave in the midst thereof toward the east and toward the west, and there shall be a very great valley; and half of the mountain shall remove toward the north, and half of it toward the south.

And ye shall flee to the valley of the mountains; for the valley of the mountains shall reach unto Azal: yea, ye shall flee, like as ye fled from before the earthquake in the days of Uzziah king of Judah: and the LORD my God shall come, and all the saints with thee. (Zachariah 14:4–5)

Josephus Flavius tells the account of an earthquake that devastated Judea in what was 31 BC according to research.

At this time it was that the fight happened at Actium, between Octavius Caesar and Antony, in the seventh year of the reign of Herod and then it was also that there was an earthquake in Judea, such a one as had not happened at any other time, and which earthquake brought a great destruction upon the cattle in that country. About thirty thousand men also perished by the fall of houses … (Josephus Flavius: Antiquities of the Jews, Book XV, Chapter Five)

The following writings provide accounts of further earthquakes in Jerusalem:

The faithless emperor Julian, because of his hatred for Jesus, allowed the Jews to rebuild their old temple in 363. However, his evil plan was not successful because, according to the credible accounts of Jewish